How Diverse are the Portrayals of Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Groups?

Studies presented in the previous section indicate the prevalence of characters who are White and/or male. Due to their prevalence, there are often diverse portrayals of these groups and those who are at the intersections of those groups (e.g., White males) showing them in different roles and their contributions to society in multiple fields.¹

Since males are featured or represented the majority of the time in educational and instructional materials, they have more varieties of roles than all gender groups. To understand how non-male groups and those of marginalized racial and ethnic identities are portrayed, this section will include research on the representation of these groups, and the intersection of these racial, ethnic, and gender groups. There are multiple cultural and ethnic groups within each racial and ethnic group, and the examples presented are not exhaustive of all cultural groups ².

Several scholars examine depictions of characters from multiple racial and ethnic groups within one study. Others analyze portrayals of one racial/ethnic group in depth. The research presented here includes both approaches.

Studies that Analyze Multiple Racial and Ethnic Groups

Multiple studies that examine representation of characters from BIPOC communities in children’s books report both authentic portrayals as well as stereotypical and limited portrayals.³ In a 2018 study, Krista Aronson and colleagues analyzed 1,037 picture books that feature BIPOC characters and found common themes in these books:⁴

• Culturally specific experiences Of 619 characters, 29.4 percent Latinx, 22.8 percent Asian, 21.8 percent Black, 10 percent Native, 5.5 percent White, 4.8 percent Middle Eastern/Arab, and 1.9 percent multiracial
• Everyday settings and situations Of 274 characters, 51.8 percent Black, 15.3 percent Latinx, 9.5 percent Asian, 7.7 percent White, 6.6 percent multiracial, 2.6 percent Native, 1.1 Middle Eastern/Arab, and 3.3 percent not identifiable
• Biographies Of 207 characters, 60.4 percent Black, 11.6 percent Latinx, 8.3 percent White, 7.7 percent Asian, 4.4 percent Native, 2.4 percent multiracial, and 1.9 Middle Eastern/Arab
• Folklore Of 200 characters, 36.5 percent Asian, 19.5 Native, 12.5 percent Middle Eastern/Arab, 11.5 percent Black, and 9 percent Latinx
• Experiences of oppression Of 154 characters, 77.3 percent Black, 9.1 percent White, 4.55 percent Native, 3.2 percent Asian, 2.6 percent Latinx, and 1.3 percent Middle Eastern/Arab

The Aronson study also investigated interactions between characters of different racial and ethnic groups. When examining these cross-cultural interactions, they identified 187 characters. Of those characters, 32.6 percent were White, 31 percent Black, 16.6 percent Asian, 4.8 percent Middle Eastern/Arab, 4.8 percent Latinx, 3.2 percent Native, and 2.7 percent multiracial. Aronson and colleagues noted that in their sample of books White characters were featured more often than Native American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander, Middle Eastern, or biracial characters.

Scholars have also examined textbooks to learn how they portray different racial and ethnic groups. A study in 1975, for example, identified problematic images in reading materials: Native American males shown in the archaic role of Indian brave and medicine man, or Asian Americans styled as from several centuries ago.⁵ In the 2018 Educational Studies study of health textbooks, Deckman and colleagues found it was common for the texts to take a “heroes and holidays” cultural approach, focusing on celebration and historical figures. At times, there were implications that some groups were not American (e.g., when chicken soft tacos are labelled “Mexican food” that “Americans” enjoy).⁶ There was also an overrepresentation of Latinx people related to conflict topics, and though stereotypes and prejudice were mentioned, they were not directly addressed.

Within books that center on multiracial and biracial characters, one study showed that they tend to focus on personal attributes of the characters (e.g., cultural celebrations, food, skin tones, expressions, etc.) and include topics such as family, pride in one’s multiple heritages, self-expression, and grandparents.⁷ In some cases, featured multiracial characters may be marginalized and their mixed heritage may be portrayed as a problem or the central plot of the story.⁸

Scholars who analyze educational media have noted that while there is some racial and ethnic diversity in digital games used in classrooms, progress is still needed. One study, for example, indicated that one common online platform hosts multiple educational games that include many White male and some White female protagonists and that stereotypes were still presented. For example, scientists tended to be White males.⁹ At the same time, this study indicated some games featured racially and ethnically diverse characters performing a variety of roles.

Studies that Analyze Individual Racial and Ethnic Groups

To look at the complexity of portrayal of different communities, some scholars investigate, in depth, the representation of one ethnic or racial group. The racial and ethnic groups listed below are slight adaptations of the groups listed by the U.S. Census Bureau. Here is what scholars have found:

Native People

Scholars have noted the generally inaccurate representations of Native American, American Indians, and Alaskan Natives¹⁰ in literature for children and youth. Learning spaces may still have books available with stereotypes and tropes of Native peoples or inaccurate information about their communities.¹¹ Often elements of individual tribal groups are mixed together, and Native peoples are inauthentically associated with Plains Indians (e.g., feathered headdresses, beaded shirts with fringe, etc.), depicted one-dimensionally, or shown as engaging in war-like behavior.¹² In some cases, characters from Native communities are depicted as being isolated. For example, these communities may be depicted as a place for spiritual enlightenment or places where outsiders should help solve the community’s problems and/or assist in Native people’s survival.¹³ It is common for historical fiction and nonfiction to show distorted accounts or fully erase events of history—by excluding the federal relocation of Native Americans or inaccurately presenting the Indian Student Placement Services programs, for example—and to illustrate characters “playing” or dressing up as “Indians.”¹⁴

Examinations of history textbooks conducted in the 1990s note the invisibility of Native peoples, both in terms of not mentioning them and in references to the continent or regions within as uninhabited or “empty.”¹⁵ Ryan Craig and Victoria Davis’s study of Indigenous peoples in U.S. history textbooks revealed how depictions changed over time: older textbooks label Indigenous peoples as violent. Newer textbooks (those after the Civil Rights Movement) contextualize violence as a response to in-group tensions and outside forces. They also see depictions move from Native people portrayed as threatening and disorganized (which established that White settlers were needed for a more “organized” and “civilized” way of life) to being portrayed as racially inferior and in need of assimilation to be of benefit to society.¹⁶

In texts used to give information about Christopher Columbus and the Taino people, research showed most of them (98 percent) were composed from a European perspective. Fewer than half (38 percent) of books identify the Native people as Taino. In some cases where they were mentioned, elements of their culture were negated.¹⁷ In portrayals of the Taino people, 54 percent oversimplified depictions (i.e., they lacked emotions or personality and served as background) and 23 percent used primitive depictions (i.e., they lacked Western or European standards of sophistication). A quarter, 23 percent, included respectful descriptions (i.e., they held a central or equal position to Spanish explorers). A small subset combined oversimplified and primitive and oversimplified and respectful depictions.

Along with examining how Native American, American Indian, and Alaskan Native people are represented in general learning materials, scholars have also examined how characters are portrayed in materials centering on these communities. An analysis of Nahua, Mexica, and Aztec children’s books, for example, examined those written from the perspective of people from the community and those from a Western perspective, and noticed differences.¹⁸ In those written from a Western perspective, researchers found errors and incorrect information about people and culture, references to human sacrifices even though there is no data that indicate this was a practice, stereotypes and racist depictions, communities shown as being extinct, and religious and spiritual ideas and other concepts based in European terms.

The School Library Journal listed books a few years that offer authentic and affirming depictions of Native peoples and given recommendations of these books in learning environments, because they have accurate cultural and historical information, fuller views of historical figures, contextualized people, and distinctions between individual tribal groups.¹⁹ A dissertation on Nahua, Mexica, and Aztec children’s books found that authors from Native communities used their Native language with translations and included oral stories.²⁰ Other scholars cited literature that uses fiction to capture historical information, such as a story about a friendship that references traditions of the Choctaw people and how they helped people of African descent escape slavery; they also highlighted the inclusion of present day stories that focus on relationships between family members.²¹

Black and African Americans

Scholars have critiqued educational materials and curricula for presenting characters of African descent in secondary and subservient roles or with little agency.²² An examination of children’s picture books between the 1930s and 1990s shows that Black characters were portrayed in subservient positions (i.e., in menial jobs or enslaved), and in stereotypical activities (i.e., playing the banjo, eating watermelon, and sleeping while other characters are socializing).²³ Scholars have also noted inaccurate depictions of African American experiences, such as showing enslavement as a pleasant or benign experience.²⁴ Even contemporary picture books that feature African Americans may take place in historical times (e.g., during slavery, Reconstruction, the Civil Rights era) rather than in modern times. They may include stereotypical elements. These can be negative stereotypes for characters, like poverty, lack of intelligence, and dirty/filthy appearance or environments, or positive ones, like loyalty to family and family traditions.²⁵

Since the late 1800s there has also been literature composed for African American children that presented more positive portrayals, such as perseverance, intelligence, and appreciation of experiences like dances, church activities, and picnics (though in some cases these books may have reinforced stereotypes).²⁶ In a study of award-winning books featuring African Americans, a dissertation of award-winning books featuring African Americans found the majority of the illustrations seem authentic, not stereotypical, and depicted African Americans as talented, industrious, gifted, valuing strong family connections, among other positive attributes. Most of the time characters in this literature were featured as individuals rather than as mere representations of their racial group.²⁷ A few years later another dissertation study made a similar point.²⁸

Other studies showed culturally accurate portrayals of community and family life, folk tales, and Black culture. These are shown through things like an appreciation of hair texture and hair styling, jazz, woven sweet grass baskets, and Sunday dinners. Cultural distinctions within communities, such as connections to Caribbean culture, are made.²⁹ Characters may reveal less-known historical information. For example, a boy visits his grandfather’s ranch, which gives information about African Americans settling in the western United States, or people host rent parties in the 1920s and 1930s to raise funds.³⁰ When issues of racism and oppression are introduced in these culturally authentic portrayals, there are details about the experience and how it manifests in daily life and explicit mentions of interracial and political issues.³¹

Educational materials and textbooks also portrayed negative and narrow portrayals as well as positive and affirming ones. When examining materials that support scientific, mathematical, and print literacies, a dissertation study found that African Americans are presented as having limited access to print, being illiterate, and not holding jobs that require extensive print-based literacy skills.³² Often in textbooks, people of African descent are referred to in the context of enslavement, with little mention of those who challenged oppression related to race and Black identity.³³ Scholars have also noted how history textbooks tend to minimize or erase social, institutional, and racialized systems that played roles in the Middle Passage, parts of slavery, Reconstruction, and later periods in America. Acts of aggression towards African Americans are portrayed as if they are isolated events.³⁴ Information referencing African American resistance towards injustice is frequently situated in the Civil Rights and Black Power eras and it is minimal or nonexistent during different periods, like Reconstruction.

Researchers suggest using educational materials that depict variations in Black and African American family structures, customs, and traditions. Characters should be given a variety of skin tones and hairstyles and presented in different learning settings.³⁵ Classrooms should include materials that are culturally specific and have a strengths-based approach to illustrating African American culture so that Black and African American students enhance their connection to their heritage and all students build African diasporic literacy.³⁶

Asian Americans

Scholars have indicated that Asian American characters in literature for children and young adults are more frequently associated with Northeast Asian cultures (particularly Chinese Americans), and less frequently with South Asian and Southeast Asian ethnicities.³⁷ One study noted it was common for the heritage of characters from East Asian communities to be specifically referenced (even if the representation was inauthentic in many cases), whereas those characters of South Asian and Southeast Asian heritage were generalized and rarely included.³⁸ A 2018 study of Asian Americans in picture books from 2007 to 2017 found the majority of them featured East Asian characters (67 percent). Southeast Asian (24 percent) and South Asians (10 percent) were presented less frequently.³⁹ This study and others have also shown improvements in portrayals of Asian Americans in books, the inclusion of culturally authentic characters and context, and a decrease in the “foreigner” image.⁴⁰

While stereotypical descriptions may be less prevalent than before and there may be authentic presentations of cultural nuances, such as family dynamics when preparing a specific dish, for example, stereotypes and limited portrayals still may be present, as when Asian Americans are depicted as high-achieving.⁴¹ Some representations perpetuate the “model minority” stereotype, present certain foods as not “American,” and depict Asian Americans as non-English speaking immigrants.⁴² Books that recount historical events often decontextualize those events, with little explanation of the systems that allowed injustices to occur, as when, for example, prejudice towards people of Chinese heritage is described with no mention of the Chinese Exclusion Act.⁴³ A dissertation on Korean Americans in picture books found it was common for themes and culture to be blended with other Asian American communities and for cultural aspects to be inauthentic.⁴⁴

Scholars have also studied Asian American representation in curriculum materials. One dissertation showed that upper elementary classrooms included Asian American characters in main or supporting roles in only 8.3 percent of reading materials for third graders and even less, 5.8 percent, for fifth graders.⁴⁵ The overall portrayal of these characters was positive, with no cultural or physical stereotypes, and the accompanying lesson plan ranged in the four approaches to multicultural integration: contribution (31 percent), additive (48 percent), transformation (16 percent), and social action (0.2 percent).⁴⁶ With historical textbooks, scholars found Japanese and Chinese American communities were most commonly mentioned and visually depicted. In some cases, they were the only heritage groups portrayed.⁴⁷ Scholars have also noted an inconsistency in the depth of historical events given and inaccurate, incomplete, and omitted information. For example, there is minimal mention of Filipino, Chinese, Korean, and Southeast Asian Americans involvement in World War II, of Asian American participation in the labor movement and the Civil Rights Movement, or of how Asian Americans handled social barriers (i.e., poverty, racism, etc.).⁴⁸ At the same time, texts referred to the contributions of Asian Americans to the national economy and the economic and academic achievements of members of these communities.⁴⁹

While there are problematic issues of character and cultural portrayals of Asian American communities, scholars have recommended the creation and use of those books that depict Asian Americans in a myriad of roles, with different interests and perspectives.⁵⁰ Texts like that show everyday and current experiences and contemporary clothing. They acknowledge the complexity and nuances of individuals and different heritages, and distinct physical qualities.⁵¹

Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders

In reviewing several children’s books depicting Native Hawaiian characters, a librarian noted common portrayals of the “exotic Native” and hula-dancers.⁵² Native Hawiians and their culture were often associated with the past.⁵³ This review also noted a connection between children’s literature and tourism.⁵⁴

Within schools in Hawaiʻi, Hawaiian studies programs have been established to teach language, geography, natural environment, and culture.⁵⁵ While these programs build Native Hawaiian student cultural connection, scholars have also critiqued these materials, especially the link between textbooks and the tourist industry. For instance, Julie Kaomea saw Native Hawaiians presented in Hawaiian studies textbooks as perceiving Captain Cook to be a deity, due his physical attributes, and as happy about his arrival, which establishes them as hospitable, happy to welcome tourists, and ambassadors of Aloha spirit.⁵⁶ Often texts omit historical events and violent acts towards Native Hawaiians, and may instead portray them as volatile people living in an oppressive social system.⁵⁷

Scholars have suggested that stories that integrate language and cultural elements in accurate contexts and stories that might include oral storytelling traditions reflective of specific cultures would give a more authentic representation.⁵⁸ Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander characters that counter stereotypes and present nuanced people with accurate cultural connections⁵⁹ would expose students to characters and stories that are more reflective of actual experiences and perspectives.

Hispanic and Latinx Americans

Analyses exploring Hispanic and Latinx American characters revealed narrow portrayals, ⁶⁰ even though some progress has occurred. For instance, some results indicated it was common for these characters to be domestic and factory workers, farmers, and dancers, and to be wearing traditional clothing (i.e., brightly colored skirts, serapes, etc.).⁶¹ At the same time, Latinx and Hispanic characters were shown as valuing relationships with family, friends, and community members, teaching and pursuing education, and contributing positive roles in society. They were presented multi-dimensionally, as kind, cowardly, honest, and suspicious.⁶² Book themes included immigration as a part of family history; connection to family; and cultural markers within the text include terms of address, food, décor, and music.⁶³

One dissertation meta-analysis of research on educational materials found that Latinx and Hispanic Americans were often depicted negatively, with no favorable traits, in early textbooks, though there were exceptions.⁶⁴ There are few references to Spanish heritage and cultural elements, and in some cases cultural traditions, customs, and ways of living prior to U.S. occupation are not included. Non-Spanish heritages were often not included. These materials often gave the start of civil rights for the Hispanic and Latinx community as beginning in the 1960s, omitting labor and civil rights struggles before that time. Puerto Rico’s relationship with the United States is depicted as an economic and political benefit to the Island.

Bárbara Cruz examined U.S. history textbooks for fifth grade, eighth grade, and 11th grade in 2002. In fifth and eighth grade textbooks, Latinx and Hispanic Americans were featured in less than 1 percent of the pictorials and rarely included in the history of the country, though more of their contemporary contributions were mentioned. They were portrayed as incompetent in military encounters and often connected to immigration and labor movements. Eleventh grade textbooks featured Latinx and Hispanic Americans slightly more frequently, had similar portrayals as the fifth and eighth grade textbooks, and included more specific information, such as mentioning the debate about bilingual education.⁶⁵

Researchers suggest using materials with engaging characters who offer complex depictions of Hispanic and Latinx people that show cultural nuances and language in context, present various dimensions of subcultures, and challenge how social and political structures reinforce stereotypes and discriminatory practices in daily life.⁶⁶

Researchers appreciate characters who portray the issues of identity and biculturalism⁶⁷ as well as those that consider multiple factors outside of heritage that influence their portrayal and development, such as class; cultural orientation and expression; environment; and everyday experiences.⁶⁸ Scholars express a need for showing greater variation in occupations, contemporary concerns and activities, and roles and community involvement.⁶⁹ Outstanding literature preserves oral traditions and folklore; includes history, cultural achievements, and everyday life; and offers realistic fiction as well as fiction that incorporates imagination and fantasy.⁷⁰

Middle Eastern Americans

Scholars have noted that portrayals of Americans of Middle Eastern descent range from problematic to positive to reflective of daily experiences. ⁷¹ Studies of books written by authors of non-Middle Eastern heritages included themes like ancient practices that continue in modern society, historical figures, and present-day wars and challenges of the Middle East region.⁷² The majority of books placed characters within ancient practices and times or in navigating difficulties.⁷³ They also noted that those of Middle Eastern descent are portrayed as newly arrived to America rather than being a part of the country for generations. While stories of characters who immigrated can show the challenges of adjusting to Western society, they can position Arab culture as different from American culture, erase those families who have been members of society for decades, and reduce people to one experience and origin. Limited portrayals also risks having students think all Middle Easterners oppress women.⁷⁴

Studies of children’s books with Middle Eastern characters found common themes. Many of those books by authors who identified as being from this heritage featured religious practices and celebrations like preparation for the five daily Muslim prayers and holidays with families; connections between past, present, and different locations; folktales; and the value of family communities.⁷⁵ Scholars have noted that some of these works show characters of Arab heritage encountering situations that are common experiences for children and peers in their age group.⁷⁶ Characters capture nuances of that particular culture within the story, whether it takes place in contemporary or ancient times.⁷⁷ Some scholars described multicultural materials that feature Middle Eastern Americans’ achievements in different fields that contribute to American life.⁷⁸

Research so far shows that Middle Eastern Americans are rarely included in U.S. textbooks.⁷⁹ Textbook studies conducted prior to the 1990s revealed Arabs and those of Arab descent were commonly featured in the context of camels, the desert, caravans, and nomadism.⁸⁰ These characters are portrayed as illiterate, warlike, and unreasonably aggressive.⁸¹ Textbooks vary in their depiction of Middle Eastern countries. They frequently connect those of the Middle East with Islam, and present inaccurate, incomplete, and dated information on topics like religion, regional conflict, social life, and politics. They feature Middle Eastern Americans, particularly Arab Americans, in the context of violent events, conflicts, and terrorism. And this group is often not apparent in textbooks until after WWII.⁸² Textbooks refer to contributions of people from the Middle East more frequently as transmitters of knowledge rather than as originators of it.⁸³

Middle Eastern Americans portray a dimension of the American experience, and should be included in past, current, and future narratives about America and integrated into school curricula and materials.⁸⁴ This includes characters who reflect life different experiences, such as immigration, third-generation, etc.⁸⁵ Researchers advocate for materials that show different perspectives and insights into Middle Eastern American culture and community and the conflicts and experiences of contemporary life.⁸⁶ Other scholars note the need for distinctions between countries, ethnic groups, cultures, and languages within the Middle East, between Arab and non-Arab countries within the region, and between Arab and Muslim people.⁸⁷

Researchers Tami Craft Al-Hazza and Katherine T. Bucher offer help in a questionnaire educators can use to ensure they are selecting quality books, based on and reflective of the suggestions of additional scholars. The questionnaire includes points like seeking out accurate and updated information, facts, and language; authenticity of the culture; and genuine insights and reflection of daily, contemporary life.⁸⁸ Scholars have also suggested including contributions of the communities to various areas like medicine, astronomy, chemistry, and language.⁸⁹

As described above, studies of educational and instructional materials show that males have been presented more often than other genders. This section will focus primarily on portrayals of non-male gender groups.

Early studies of children’s literature revealed that roles and portrayals of adult female characters were often limited to “traditional” activities, such as preparing food, shopping, cleaning, doing laundry, and taking care of children. Female children were helping mothers with their activities, pleasing or serving their brothers, shopping, jumping rope, or playing with dolls and dress-up.⁹⁰ There were few portrayals of female characters in professional and non-home-related activities, and they were more likely to be portrayed as dependent, passive, and less active.⁹¹

One study that examined children’s literature between 1938 and 2011 showed when female characters are the lead, they are more likely to be portrayed as passive, dependent, submissive, and inactive than explorative, independent, and active⁹² Studies in 2015 and 2020 indicated a similar pattern of females depicted in roles like housekeeper, stay-at-home parent, person working indoors, and with passive and nurturing traits.⁹³ At the same time, when females were presented as main characters, they were at times spunky or enjoying a career as a scientist, countering earlier portrayals.⁹⁴

Studies on the representation of transgender characters and gender nonbinary characters show that often the story line centers on the character’s gender identity and in some cases as problem that is addressed.⁹⁵ Characters may perform a skill or action which leads them to being the hero or assert their value.⁹⁶

Scholars of U.S. textbooks have noted the broadened portrayals of females and expanded inclusion of their contributions to society since the 1970s and the reduction of blatant sexism within texts.⁹⁷ At the same time, many of the portrayals either feature women as minor actors or exclude important figures.⁹⁸ Health textbooks for middle schoolers portray females commonly shown primping as a form of self-care, and in traditional gendered family roles.⁹⁹ When females were featured as people to study in these textbooks, they were presented in connection to their relationship with men and valued for their attractiveness. A study of U.S. history books published between 1956 and 2007 showed women’s depictions in and mentions of their active participation in WWII war effort increased in textbooks over time, though there was limited mention of their contributions.¹⁰⁰ Even with the increased mention of women’s contributions in textbooks, scholars have noted a need for more content composed and presented through the perspective of women.¹⁰¹

For other subject areas where there is a lack of diverse gender groups presented, like music, scholars suggest the incorporation of the social and political context to interrogate reasons for the exclusion of certain people.¹⁰² Scholars have also challenged the binary perspective of gender within content areas like mathematics, and the lack of representation and inclusion of gender nonbinary and transgender people as contributors to the field.¹⁰³

Studies of other types of educational and instructional materials reveal similar portrayals of different gender groups, though many of these studies are from more than 20 years ago and need updates. A review of software back in 2001 found female characters frequently portrayed as active, adventurous, and independent,¹⁰⁴ though some female characters conformed to passive gender stereotypes.¹⁰⁵ Educational television programs, according to a 1999 report, were more likely to portray female characters as dependent, deferential, and nurturing, though they also exhibited dominant and aggressive behaviors.¹⁰⁶

Scholars have noted there are differences in representation of characters who represent a combination of gender and racial or ethnic groups that are marginalized. Some narrow and stereotypical portrayals may reflect experiences women encounter, while other portrayals may be unique to a particular racial and ethnic group. For instance, in one examination of the portrayal of Arab people in children’s literature, females were commonly depicted as overweight, covered, secondary in the scene, overtly sexualized, or passive pleasure-givers.¹⁰⁷ Studies of Latinx and Hispanic Americans in books found characters commonly defined by traditional male and female behavior, and there were no nonbinary characters presented.¹⁰⁸ Early studies of Latinx and Hispanic depictions found disproportionate representations of males characters to females, and while recent studies found an equal number of female and male characters, characters who are nonbinary are not portrayed.¹⁰⁹

Christopher Busey at the University of Florida examined the representation of Afro-Latinas in history textbooks and found they were often featured before the 1900s. They were also connected to historical narratives of enslavement, which omitted or minimized anti-Blackness, violence towards Afro-Latinas, and slavery resistance, implied Black people caused their enslavement, and reduced their contributions to labor rather than lifting up their cultural, social, and intellectual contributions.¹¹⁰ Modern references to Afro-Latina people positioned them as being problematic. In another study, scholars found that secondary textbooks at the remedial reading level align with multicultural education and reflect more cultures of BIPOC communities than the more advanced textbooks.¹¹¹

Scholars who examined the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender, found there were no nonbinary characters available to analyze.¹¹² Research that examines transgender and nonbinary characters may not simultaneously look at race and ethnicity.¹¹³

Even though there are portrayals that are problematic, scholars have identified traits that are positive. For instance, children’s books can portray characters that affirm aesthetics related to cultural and gender identity, like taking care of Black hair.¹¹⁴ Scholars have also noted that characters may be presented positively, yet culturally inaccurately. Amina Chaudhri and Nicole Schau pointed out Native women protagonists who were shown as complex, with heroic traits (independent, intelligent, resourceful) rooted in a Eurocentric perspective. Traits that would be cultivated in their tribal community were omitted.¹¹⁵ Jobia Keys’s study of Doc McStuffins and Dora the Explorer revealed how both characters and their families present some instances of countering limited traits associated with social identity.¹¹⁶ Her study also pointed out that while Doc’s racial or ethnic affiliation is apparent as African American, Dora’s Hispanic or Latinx heritage is not. This racial and ethnic ambiguity is not particular to Dora, but it has been critiqued as a presentation of the “generic Latino” or as part of the general “browning of characters” who have no particular heritage.¹¹⁷