Methodology and Source List

Interviews, material collection, and analysis took place over five months and included 12 interviews with families of individuals with disabilities, disabled individuals, employers, and experts on the network of support service, as well as analyses of existing research, public comments, policy reports, and social media posts from more than 100 people.

Our goal was to showcase the perspectives of those often unheard during conversations about the transition from subminimum wage to competitive integrated employment. Thus, three distinct stakeholder groups were identified: (a) families and individuals, (b) employers, and (c) employment support system professionals. We did not set a target number of individuals to interview. We decided to anonymize interviews to allow for more open conversations.

Individuals were identified for interviews in a variety of methods. National experts were contacted via email for all three categories. We also posted a call for interviewees on social media. All interviewees were contacted via email with a description of the project and a request for a 30-minute phone or remote video interview. The email explained that responses would be kept anonymous and that compensation was not provided.

We collected interview information in a locked, pre populated form. This provided a confidential way to collect information into a spreadsheet to allow for theme analysis. Because our goal was to collect perspectives on the topic of subminimum wage phaseout, we did not collect demographic information about interviewees, but did ask about region and location to get a sense of political and policy contexts.

Collection of materials was another aspect of understanding how stakeholders are impacted during the transition from subminimum wage to competitive integrated employment. We gathered research reports from the last 10 years and collected high-profile national news articles on subminimum wage, particularly those highlighting stories about one of the three stakeholder groups. Finally, we gathered documents relevant to issues discussed during the interviews. Materials were collected in an electronic folder shared between authors. Citations for these materials include:

1. Amanda Morris, Caitlin Gilbert, and Jacqueline Alemany, “Some Disabled Workers in the U.S. Make Pennies Per Hour. It’s Legal,” Washington Post, August 30, 2024.
2. The Association of People Supporting Employment First (APSE), “Trends and Current Status of 14(c),” July 2023.
3. Caitlin Gilbert, Amanda Morris, and Jacqueline Alemany, “Why Some U.S. Disabled Workers are Making Less Than a Dollar an Hour,” Washington Post, August 30, 2024.
4. Fong Chan, David Strauser, Philip Maher, Eun-Jeong Lee, Robert Jones, and E. T. Johnson, “Demand-Side Factors Related to Employment of People with Disabilities: A Survey of Employers in the Midwest Region of the United States,” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation 20 (2010): 412–19.
5. Carli Friedman, “Ableism, Racism, and Subminimum Wage in the United States,” Disability Studies Quarterly 39, no. 4 (2019).
6. Michelle Maroto and David Pettinicchio, “Worth Less? Exploring the Effects of Subminimum Wages on Poverty Among U.S. Hourly Workers,” Sociological Perspectives 66, no. 3 (2022).
7. Mihir Kakara, Elizabeth F. Bair, and Atheendar Venkataramani, “Repeal of Subminimum Wages and Social Determinants of Health Among People with Disabilities,” JAMA Health Forum 5, no. 11 (2024).
8. National Council on Disability, Report on Subminimum Wage and Supported Employment (2012).
9. Kim Knackstedt, “Department of Labor made an incredible announcement this morning,” LinkedIn, December 3, 2024.
10. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Subminimum Wages: Impacts on the Civil Rights of People with Disabilities (September 2020).
11. U.S. Government Accountability Office, Subminimum Wage Program: DOL Could Do More to Ensure Timely Oversight (January 2023).
12. U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Subminimum Wage Program: Factors Influencing the Transition of Individuals with Disabilities to Competitive Integrated Employment,” March 4, 2021.
13. All public comments submitted for organizations for the subminimum wages briefing before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2019. The following are the selected comments cited in our report come from the sources listed below:
    1. Public comment submitted on behalf of Associated Production Services.
    2. Public comment submitted on behalf of AtWork!.
    3. Public comment submitted on behalf of Freedom Work Opportunities.
    4. Public comment submitted on behalf of Illinois Council on Developmental Disabilities.
    5. Public comment submitted on behalf of JCI.
    6. Public comment submitted on behalf of Life’sWork of Western PA.
    7. Public comment submitted on behalf of Misericordia.
    8. Public comment submitted on behalf of The Arc.
14. All Panel Testimony Submitted for the Subminimum Wages Briefing before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2019. The following are the selected testimonies cited in our report come from the sources listed below:
    1. John Anton, panel testimony
    2. Carol Ann DeSantis, panel testimony
    3. Julie Christensen, panel testimony
    4. Anil Lewis, panel testimony